THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCHOOL NEWSPAPER IN ISRAEL BETWEEN 1948–1980: CONCEPT AND PRODUCT

Hebrew media has a rich history which continued to be produced after the creation of the state of Israel in both formal and informal settings. The production of school newspapers influences the extracurricular educational activity by enriching it with valuable content, as well as the spirit, that is useful for the harmonious development of the students involved in such activities. The process of designing and producing school newspapers between 1948 and the eighties of the 20th century in Israel was carried out in a very similar way to the way in which this process was carried out in the period before the establishment of the state of Israel and continued to function in accordance with the activity of the three categories of staff usually involved in the process of making these journalistic products: teaching staff, students, as well as the category combined between the two ones. Through the research presented below, it was concluded that over the years, the editorial policy of the school newspaper in Israel was often dictated by the type of school, the religion of those involved in the process, the gender of the authors (boys, girls), age, product financing, etc. The positive aspect of the process of creating a school newspaper can also be extracted from the fact that two categories were always involved in the process of creating a school newspaper: students and teachers, the tandem working more efficiently than in other cases where only one category was involved: either only teaching staff, or only students.


Introduction
Just as the Israeli media has a rich history, so the school newspapers in Israel that continued to be produced in both formal and informal settings, have a long and fruitful history.The high school newspapers that operated before the establishment of the state continued to appear, even after its establishment and school newspapers conducted in schools informally during the hours after school are considered to be an enriching educational activity.
The policy of activity and editing the school newspapers during these years, between 1948 and eighties, Seria ,,Ştiinţe ale educației" Științe ale educației ISSN 1857ISSN -2103 was conducted in a very similar way to the way this press was conducted in the period before the establishment of the state of Israel and continued to operate according to the 3 different categories of writing staff: by the educational staff and adults, by school students and combined writing staff by school students and the educational staff and adults [1, p. 314].Over the course of these years, the editorial policy of the school newspaper was often dictated by the nature of the type of school, whether in terms of sector, religion, gender (boys, girls), age, democracy level, etc., formally, or informally and according to the financing issue.During this long period of time, of over 4 decades, the newspapers continued to be published, according to the nature of the school where the newspaper was published, when most newspapers were running according to the third category.These newspapers were integrated ones, in which the editorial and management staff worked together.Although the growing trend over the years was to give greater expression to the students' creativity, but usually under the supervision of the educational staff.For example, newspapers produced as part of religious education were mostly managed by the educational staff and freedom of expression was very limited, and at the same time, as in progressive and liberal schools the democratic values and the freedom of expression were wider, the school students used to run the school newspaper almost by themselves [2].These journalistic activities, which were conducted in the formal and informal framework, formed a proper and good infrastructure for the school journalism that continued to develop in Israel, after its establishment and until the beginning of period of digitalization.

Content
The period indicated in the research title, 1948-1980, is characterized by many changes and developments in the world of journalism, in general, and within that, of school journalism and journalism studies, which focused on the development of the technologies for the journalistic activities.The journalistic productions are computerized or digitalized and many alternatives to the formats of the school newspapers are being created.The phenomenon of school journalism is expanding and does not remain within the formal framework of journalism studies, but breaks boundaries and is produced informally, also as a school product that illustrates the existence of schools in different country regions and ages.However, the production of the newspaper in the informal framework is without supervision and control, and the newspapers often serve the needs of the educational staff more than it serves the needs of the school students [3, p. 34].
The beginning of school journalism in the independent state of Israel was the continuation of the school journalistic activity that was conducted in the years before its establishment in 1948.This activity continued to be conducted in the informal framework at the end of the school day and dealt with contents that were mostly of interest to the school students, along with guidance and assistance from the educational staff [4, p. 85].
The policy of activity in the school newspapers in the years between 1948 and 1970 was conducted, for the most part, by the adults, the education staff, and only occasionally the school students were given freedom of action in the newspaper [2].In the newspapers the editorial and management influence of the educational staff was noticed, and the newspapers often looked like newspapers on behalf of the management.Sources of information, for some of the school newspapers, between 1948 and 1970 were collected from school archives.This period between 1948 and 1970 constitutes the breaking through stage in which the school printed journalism began to integrate informally as an interdisciplinary educational mass communication medium, as it slowly expands in the new and emerging Israeli education system, and begins to receive public, educational and research attention, especially towards the end of the period.This is the first stage according to the historical model of the development of the media [3, p. 37].
From 1948 until the 1970s, the research of the school press in Israel dealt with social and moral aspects, such as love for the country, social involvement and helping others, the importance of family values, enlistment in the army, trips and sights of the country's landscapes, but along that, they also wrote about wars, victories, and losses.However, the research tended to deal mainly with the issues of freedom of expression and censorship imposed on the school newspaper by the educational staff, when in those years, Israeli research in that field was very limited, compared to global research, and only towards the beginning of the 1970s it begins to develop.
The freedom of speech issue, which is not properly implemented in the school newspaper, was always a controversial research issue, which has often provoked a lot of opposition from the school students, but also from education teachers, mainly the communication and journalism teachers, parents, and researchers.
In the 1970s, the research and the education system began to see the school newspaper as a product of a democratic process in the school and it operated, mainly, in the informal framework of the school, usually after the end of the school day [5, p. 71].Despite the so-called "free" framework that is not part of the formal lesson system, in these years the school newspaper was perceived as a newspaper "for the students" and not "of the students", due to the involvement of the school and parents who often reduced the freedom of expression and used it as a stage to present the school's activities This involvement in the contents of the newspaper hurt the students' motivation to participate in the school newspaper, as the students considered it a very disturbing factor.However, when the school newspaper was produced in the informal setting, the censorship imposed on it by the school faculty was less, compared to the school press that was produced formally, and therefore this activity framework was preferred by the students, especially in middle schools.
Issues of the production format and financing of the school newspaper between 1948 and 1970, the first decades of the state of Israel when the education budget was still modest, projects like the school newspaper were considered luxuries.From this point, the newspaper was often produced with local and poor tools in the school printing press, or without the use of printing means, such as the use of articles and drawings written in the students' handwriting on the pages of the notebook, and which were hung respectfully on the classroom walls, in a central wall newspaper near the classrooms or in the school corridors [6, p. 251].In those years, usually only in the private schools the funding to produce the school newspaper came from the parents' budget, as in the case of the large and established gymnasium and high school newspapers, which operated before the establishment of the Israeli state.The Reali newspaper in Haifa, for example, continued to operate in these years in the same format as it was produced in the years before the establishment of the state, produced printed newspapers such as ,,Hevraya" (in Hebrew ,,Guys"), and ,,Be Mahane Haavoda" (in Hebrew ,,At The Labor Camp") from 1951, which was produced by several high school classes at the ,,De Shalit" School, formerly the gymnasium in Rehovot.These newspapers included articles on the agenda, interviews with teachers and administrators, school events, trips, and journeys.Additional school newspapers, or as they were called at the time -information booklets, brochures, newsletters or bulletins, were also produced during the 1950s and 1960s usually in sector schools and boarding schools.For example, the Green Village school Newspaper ,,Hayom U-Machar" (in Hebrew ,,Today and Tomorrow") of the Green Village Boarding School, was produced continuously for years as it evolved from print to digital format.In the 1960s, the boarding school newspapers were produced for years as part of the formal classes of Language and society, were typed on a school typewriter and printed using improvised means.The contents dealt with social and personal issues of adolescence, in which they wrote about friendships, studies, plans, positions, opinions and interviews.For the most part, the editorial policy was set by the teacher responsible for the school newspaper and freedom of expression was not absolute [6, p. 252].
Since the establishment of the Israeli state until the beginning of the 1970s, the education system was busy establishing the education policy with moral and ideological support in the many emergency situations that befell the young state of Israel, which fought from the moment it was established against enemy armies.Hence, the status of the school newspaper in those years was not particularly high, also due to the informal framework in which it operated and being an extracurricular study and thus the impression that was received, was a product of a niche study which is not particularly important in the educational system [Ibidem].
Until the 1970s, the global research tended to inspect the effects of the popular mass communication on children and youth, such as the effects of the television on this age group, which were considered extremely harmful, and did not particularly was interested in the effects of the school newspaper, which were not attributed negative effects.This fear, from the mass communication influences which increased in view of the damage of mass media, led the education and research system to look for other streams, which may have a positive effect on teenagers, such as exposing children and youth to the press and books, which have been attributed many positive effects.The study of the printed school press was, as mentioned, particularly active in the 1970s and 1980s and it mainly dealt with value-based social issues surrounding the subject of Seria ,,Ştiinţe ale educației" Științe ale educației ISSN 1857-2103 freedom of expression following censorship incidents that were imposed on various censored school newspapers.In these years, the printed school newspaper entered the third stage of its development.Although it continued to develop and established itself in the education system within the informal framework, it still was not considered a formal product of communication studies [3, p. 34].At this stage, the school newspaper receives much more public attention than at the previous stage, both in the field of research, and in the field of the education system, school staff, students and parents.This medium has started slowly to be accepted, a cautious acceptance and it is beginning to become a recognized educational product in schools.However, it continued to be perceived as an educational product that should promote democracy and freedom of expression in the school, without a formal status.As in the previous period, the school newspaper continued to function only after the end of the school day and was produced with poor school means and sometimes was not even printed or distributed at the school.The contents chosen for writing dealt with the student's personal, social, and cultural world.
In the late 1980s, communication studies began to be integrated into the new curriculum for matriculation and the school newspaper was the journalism classes' product in high schools, but also of the middle school, although not as a core subject but an elective one.
The activity policy in the school newspapers in these years between 1970-1980 was conducted in a very similar way as it was conducted in the two periods preceding these years, when most of the newspapers were managed according to an integrated editorial policy, while managed by the educational school staff, together with a degree of freedom of action given to the journalism school students.The editorial policy was dictated, for the most part, by the nature of the school and the world view of the school director and his superiors.Thus, newspapers, which were managed within the framework of religious education, were mostly managed by the school management, with content that mostly dealt with religion, Judaism, and social values, while the freedom of expression was very limited.If the school became more progressive and liberal, freedom of expression increased and so did the policy of providing much creative freedom within the journalistic activity [2].
There is a distinction between ,,a newspaper of the school students", where a higher degree of freedom of expression was allowed to the school students, and ,,a newspaper for the school students", where freedom of expression was lower, while most of the Israeli school newspapers at the 70s belonged to newspapers for the school students "where freedom of expression was reduced.In these years, the school newspaper tried to continue fulfilling its vocation at the school as promoting the values of democracy and freedom of expression.However, unlike the contents that the school newspaper dealt with in the early years of the young and developing state of Israel, now the contents chosen for writing had a convergent nature, and they mainly dealt with the personal, socio-cultural world of the student [7, p. 92].
Until 1980, most of the printed school newspapers were produced in the informal framework, when the contents mostly dealt with issues related to the world of the school students in their environment, and usually wrote about educational, social, and family issues that occurred at school and at home.Only a small part of these school newspaper writers dealt with educational-pedagogical or political issues, while the educational staff was involved in the selection of the contents and in the general production of the newspaper, but despite this, the students had a relatively wide freedom of action.An example for school newspaper dealt with the aspects mentioned before, is the daily ,,Green Village Boarding School", ,,Today and Tomorrow", which was an appendix to the ,,Hayom U-Machar" school newspaper (in Hebrew ,,Today and Tomorrow") from 1972, in which the change in the topics chosen for writing in the newspaper was clear.The choice of the subjects for writing, as the writing itself were with a higher degree of freedom of expression.Yet, the production was poor and the school newspaper was typed on the school's typewriter and printed in individual copies.The editing policy is not clear, but it seems that there is a wider degree of freedom of action for students.In these years, the students were less concerned with the content, which exalted the love of the land, the pride of the homeland and the preservation of its borders and unity, as it was in previous period.During these years, the school press in Israel acted, according to the American and European model of school.In Israel, too, the school newspaper was a niche product that was produced informally after the end of the school day, a framework of action that was popular with both the students, who chose to be ac-tive in the newspaper system, since they were not forced to do so, and the teachers who accompanied this activity.The reason for this preference stemmed from the fact that it was possible to engage in journalistic activity with wider freedom of action, and due to the feeling that this is not a normal lesson at school, but rather an activity that was perceived more as an enrichment study.
During the end of the 1970s and until the beginning of the 1990s, the process of producing a school newspaper became more and more complex, due to challenges and dilemmas placed by hierarchical and authoritative educational institutions, as its financing, the involvement of the educational staff and parents in the management of the school newspaper and the restriction of freedom of expression and the censorship imposed on its [8, p. 4].
One of the biggest failures that damaged the process of producing the printed school newspaper and cast a shadow over its continued existence, concerns the issue of its financing.Until the early 1990s, the printed school press was usually dependent on internal funding sources of the school, or on parent funding, which often led to resistance in funding this project, and on the other hand, when they approved to fund it, the involvement of the educational staff and parents in the process was significantly increased in its production.
Even so, many of the printed school newspapers were produced in an unprofessional manner with the poorest means, such as printing a few copies on the school printer or hanging articles on printer paper or notebook paper, in the students' handwriting, on a wall paper in the school or on the walls of the classroom, something that hurt their frequency of appearance, number, quality and distribution.
The situation was slightly different in schools that were financially based and the issue of funding the newspaper was not an obstacle in the production of the school newspaper or schools that produced the newspapers with low costs, when the design and editing were produced independently and only the printing was an expense.For example, the De-Shalit school [9] newspaper ,,Ashmash" (abbreviation for: a newspaper that hasn't found a name) maintain impressively since it was founded.Since its inception, it has provided a platform for students of all age groups in the school to express their talents in writing -poems, stories, articles and interviews with teachers and students, designed and illustrated at the school.The students, under the guidance of the newspaper coordinator teacher, decided on the final design and content of the newspaper and all the school students receive the newspaper at their homes.
With the beginning of the integration of the school newspaper, as part of the formal communication studies in the early 1990s, the school administration dedicated a special budget to the production of the newspaper, which also included the recruitment of a communication teacher and the payment of his salary.

Conclusions
One of the main and critical factors that made difficult the existence of the school newspaper in the period of 1948-1980 is the issue of the involvement of the educational staff and parents in the production of the newspaper and, as a result, the restriction of freedom of expression and the censorship imposed on it.The involvement of the educational staff and especially of the principal and parents, increased significantly from the mid-1970s.This led to a negative attitude, in most cases, on the part of the school students and a lack of motivation for them to take part in the school newspaper, due to this involvement, which increased in the early 1980s.This involvement stood out in every setting, in which the printed school newspaper was produced, both in the formal settings, and in the informal settings, to the dissatisfaction of the students, who stated that they prefer to produce the printed newspaper independently, as they claimed, there was no balance of power between the parts: the educational staff and the students.Their voices were not heard during these years, as they aspired.For the most part, the students saw the involvement of the parents and the educational staff as a very disturbing factor.Moreover, as the age of the students increased, so did the reluctance to involve parents in school activities, and in the meantime, in the activities of the school newspaper [10, p.137].Nevertheless, an ambivalent attitude of the school students towards the involvement of the parents, according to which, some of them supported this parental involvement, but it was a very small percentage compared to the majority who opposed it.
As a result of the involvement of the educational staff and parents in the school newspaper production, another difficulty accompanied, which is the restriction of freedom of expression and the censorship im-Seria ,,Ştiinţe ale educației" Științe ale educației ISSN 1857-2103 posed on the school newspaper content.In the 1970s and 1980s, only a few school newspaper operated within the informal framework, with freedom of expression higher there, but there are still quite numerous cases of censorship imposed on its contents.Still, we have to mention that, however, newspapers published in closed educational frameworks, such boarding schools and gymnasiums, gained more resonance and interest with the years passing, becoming more attractive for the students later with the development of new, modern, digital technologies.